The Letters of Paul

Abingdon Press

Contents

Paul Writes Letters

Paul's enduring legacy is in the form of letters he wrote to churches that he had established or to churches he intended to visit. The more closely the letters are studied the more obvious it becomes that they are not hastily scribbled directives, such as one might send to a friend or family member to report what one had for lunch or to request a favor. They are carefully crafted communications, written to persuade readers to think or act in a particular way. Even a group of Paul's opponents, who charge him with a weak sense of presence and poor speaking skills, acknowledge that "his letters are weighty and strong" (2 Cor 10:10).

Increasingly, the argument has been made that form cannot be separated from content. Both contribute to the meaning of a single passage or a document as a whole. As David Aune notes, "Literary genres and forms are not simply neutral containers used as convenient ways to package various types of communication. They are social conventions that provide contextual meaning for the smaller units of language and text they enclose." Thus it is critical in seeking to understand the subject matter of the Pauline writings to take seriously the fact that they are letters. Their arrangement and even their contents are shaped by the conventions of the letter form—and at the same time their subject matter often forces a modification of the conventions.

Though Paul's letters are the earliest that we have from the Christian community, letter writing was a common means of communication throughout the Greco-Roman world and became a characteristic literary form in early Christianity. Twenty-one of the twenty-seven writings in the New Testament bear features that mark them as letters, and both the Acts of the Apostles (15:22–31) and Revelation (2:1–3:22) contain letters. It is likely that the form and practice of writing letters were taught early in Greco-Roman schools, probably on the basis of model letters. While the most obvious reason for writing was the communication of information, letters nevertheless served a host of functions, such as issuing orders, mediating disputes, nurturing friendships, and offering praise or blame.

The last third of the twentieth century has brought significant advances in our understanding of the ancient letter form and its adaptation by Paul. Two factors have sparked this recent interest. First, toward the end of the nineteenth century archaeologists discovered a host of documents (papyri) and ostraca (pottery fragments with inscriptions) from the town archives and old libraries of ancient Egypt. Among them were hundreds of letters of various sorts, both official and private, from the Greco-Roman period. During the early part of the twentieth century, Adolf Deissmann began to sort through this material and make initial judgments, but it has remained for later specialists to continue the project and to determine exactly what can be learned from the discoveries about the practice of letter writing in general and particularly about the letter writing of Paul. The material provides a substantial supplement to what was already known from the more literary tradition.

Second, the investigation of the papyri has been paralleled by research into the ancient theorists, such as Demetrius, Cicero, and Seneca, who either produced handbooks on letter writing or in their rhetorical instruction included directions about the practice of composing letters. For example, Demetrius acknowledged that a letter is analogous to a dialogue and should be plain, but at the same time it should be written in a more studied style since it is sent as a gift. Certain topics, such as those of complex logical subtleties, should be avoided in letters. "A letter is designed to be the heart's good wishes in brief; it is the exposition of a simple subject in simple terms" (On Style 231).

What has the research taught us about Paul's letters? When Deissmann began the investigation of the papyri, he drew a distinction between letters and epistles. Letters, he argued, are nonliterary, generally private communications, serving the purpose of conversation between two persons. They can be illustrated by the typical commercial or familial letters that turn up in the papyri collection. Epistles, on the other hand, are not letters in the usual sense of the word but are artistic creations. They are composed with skill according to established literary conventions and are intended for a wide audience. The epistle "does not go abroad, like the letter, on a single sheet of papyrus, but it is reproduced at once at the beginning by slaves of the bookseller in the great city: it is to be bought, read, and discussed in Alexandria, in Ephesus, Athens, Rome."

Paul, Deissmann contended, wrote true letters and not epistles. They were directed to specific situations, not repeated, and were not to be compared with the literary art of an Epicurus or an Aristotle. Paul's letters emerged almost spontaneously "in the midst of the storm and stress of his wandering life, which was so rich in moving experiences." They are misjudged, Deissmann argued, when they are regarded as treatises or literary productions.

More recently, however, Deissmann's distinction between letters and epistles has come under considerable criticism, particularly when applied to Paul. For one thing, Paul's letters were written to churches and probably were soon copied and shared with other churches. It is hard to speak of them as private communications. (Even Philemon's address includes "the church in your house"; see Phlm 2.) Furthermore, an analysis of the language and rhetoric of Paul's letters leads to the conclusion that these were not communications hastily dashed off in the hustle and bustle of a busy ministry. Even the letter to the Galatians, which Deissmann thought was dictated by sacred indignation and which he labeled "a fiery letter of self-defense," is better seen as a carefully constructed argument, employing a variety of persuasive strategies designed to convince his Gentile readers not to accept circumcision.

When set alongside the everyday letters found in the papyri collection and the more artistic letters from the literary culture of Greece and Rome, Paul's letters in terms of style fall somewhere in between. He does not produce flat, humdrum communications with no flourish at all. While his imagery may not be as lively as the parables of Jesus, he draws comparisons that clearly make telling points (for example, the law as "our disciplinarian" in Gal 3:24; the creation's "groaning" like an expectant mother in labor in Rom 8:19–23; the breaking off and grafting in of branches on an olive tree in Rom 11:17–24). His convictions are tightly argued and are even punctuated with earthy humor (Gal 5:12). At the same time, Paul hardly matches the aesthetic and artistic standards of the ancient litterateur.

THE STRUCTURE OF PAUL'S LETTERS

It is not surprising that the issue of the structure of Paul's letters has received considerable scrutiny. Our own letters, whether personal or business, generally follow a recognizable pattern that provides a framework for communication—"Dear Ms. Smith:" "Sincerely, John Jones." Depending on the familiarity between sender and receiver and the purpose for writing, the conventions are modified. Between the opening and the closing comes the body of the letter. Paul's letters follow a similar threefold pattern.

The Opening

Structurally, Paul begins each letter in a customary fashion by naming the sender and the recipients and by offering a word of greeting and a prayer of thanksgiving. This is not unusual, since, with some variations, all four elements are standard ingredients in the papyrus letters found in Egypt. What becomes intriguing, however, is the way the elements are expanded in particular letters either in light of Paul's relationship to his readers or in light of the situation that prompted him to write.

Consider the opening of Romans (Rom 1:1–17):

Sender: Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God, which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy scriptures, the gospel concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh and was declared to be Son of God with power according to the spirit of holiness by resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles for the sake of his name, including yourselves who are called to belong to Jesus Christ (vv. 1–6);

Recipients: To all God's beloved in Rome, who are called to be saints (v. 7a):

Greetings: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ (v. 7b).

Prayer of Thanksgiving: First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, because your faith is proclaimed throughout the world. For God, whom I serve with my spirit by announcing the gospel of his Son, is my witness that without ceasing I remember you always in my prayers, asking that by God's will I may somehow at last succeed in coming to you. For I am longing to see you so that I may share with you some spiritual gift to strengthen you—or rather so that we may be mutually encouraged by each other's faith, both yours and mine. I want you to know, brothers and sisters, that I have often intended to come to you (but thus far have been prevented), in order that I may reap some harvest among you as I have among the rest of the Gentiles. I am a debtor both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish—hence my eagerness to proclaim the gospel to you also who are in Rome (vv. 8–15).

Theme: For I am not ashamed of the gospel; it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who has faith, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. For in it the righteousness of God is revealed through faith for faith; as it is written, "The one who is righteous will live by faith" (vv. 16–17).

This represents the lengthiest opening of any of the Pauline letters. Several things become obvious. First, the designation of the sender is extensive (vv. 1–6) and almost overwhelms the designation of the recipients and the greeting. Second, the designation emphasizes not Paul's personal characteristics so much as his mandate to carry out a mission among non-Jews (including the readers), a mandate he sees rooted in the gospel. Third, though it is not immediately evident in the English translation, verses 3–4 contain a confessional formula that may well have been known to the Roman readers. Fourth, the prayer of thanksgiving, while acknowledging the faith of the readers and Paul's concern for them, returns to the theme of the mission to the Gentiles and his plans to visit the Christians in Rome. Finally, the opening includes an explicit but uncharacteristic statement of theme (vv. 16–17).

Just as the beginning of our letters, often in subtle ways, establishes a relationship and sets a tone for what is coming in the body of the letter ("Dear Ms. Smith" or "Dear Sally" or "My Dearest"), so the opening to Romans makes a connection with the readers and telegraphs Paul's concern in writing. Since he has never visited Rome (v. 13), readers can anticipate from the opening that the body of the letter will clarify the gospel he preaches, particularly as it relates to non-Jews (and even "barbarians"). One can expect from the statement of theme to read more in the letter about the gospel as God's power, as the revelation of God's righteousness to believers, and as the fulfillment of the Old Testament Scriptures. While it may be too much to compare the opening to a table of contents, it customarily serves to set the letter's agenda.

One can detect the same features in other letters in which the opening telegraphs important themes in the body: 1 Corinthians (the stress on the richness of the spiritual gifts the readers have been given [1:4–7]), Galatians (the clarification of Paul's commission as an apostle and the replacement of a prayer of thanksgiving by a statement of astonishment that his readers have turned to a different gospel [1:1, 6–7]), Philippians (the stress on mutuality and friendship [1:3–7]), 1 Thessalonians (the readers' example of faith amid persecution and their anticipation of the return of Jesus [1:6–10]), and Philemon (the broadening of the address to include Philemon's friends, [v. 2]).

The Closing

The typical Hellenistic letter is usually concluded with a terse "Farewell." In the Pauline letters the closings tend to be a bit more elaborate, including closing greetings to or from friends, the exhortation to greet one another with a holy kiss, and a concluding benediction. Occasionally a prayer of peace is offered (e.g., 1 Thess 5:23–24), and final admonitions are given (e.g., 2 Cor 13:11). In addition to providing a conventional conclusion to the letter, the closing serves to nurture the continued relations between Paul and the readers, a not unimportant detail since Paul often plans to follow the letter with a visit.

The most distinctive closing comes in Galatians (6:11–18). The body of the letter deals with Paul's sharp critique of a group of teachers who have come into the Galatian communities and have insisted that in order to be included among the people of God members must not only believe in Jesus but also practice circumcision and observe special festivals. Having dictated the letter, Paul writes the conclusion in his own hand and proceeds to launch a final attack on the teachers. His strategy is to compare the teachers as representatives of the "world" over against himself as a representative of the "new creation." In the course of doing so, he impugns the motives of the teachers, and the readers in effect are left with a choice: the gospel of the crucified Christ (as preached by Paul) or circumcision (as advocated by the teachers). A prayer for peace and the final benediction bring the letter to an end.

This closing, like none other, is carefully linked to the argument of the letter and functions not so much to foster relations as to make a final appeal to the readers. The deviation from the usual letter form in both the opening and the closing of Galatians would certainly catch the attention of the initial readers and underscore the urgency of the issue before them.

The Body

With the openings and closings of Paul's letters it is easy to identify features common to his letters and features that can be paralleled in the standard Hellenistic letter. With the body of the letter, however, the common and conventional features are not so obvious. This should not come as a big surprise, since the body conveys the primary information of the letter and of necessity varies from letter to letter. The same is true of modern letters.

Three characteristics of the body of Paul's letters have received attention in recent research. First, there is the introductory formula, combined with the direct address "brothers and sisters," with which the body proper is usually opened. Five of Paul's letters begin the body with a disclosure formula, such as "I want you to know, brothers and sisters ..." or "We do not want you to be unaware, brothers and sisters ..." (Romans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians), while two of the letters begin with a request formula "Now I appeal to you, brothers and sisters ..." (1 Corinthians, Philemon). Parallels can be drawn to the letters of the papyri collection, suggesting that recalling information already shared with the readers or conveying new information serves at the outset of the body to create a basis of mutuality from which the argument can go forward. In each use of the disclosure formula the information mentioned has to do with Paul's personal situation or intentions. In both uses of the appeal formula the focus is directed to the readers.

The direct address "brothers and sisters," which is coupled with the introductory formula and also appears repeatedly throughout the body of Paul's letters, should not be dismissed as a mere formality. The use of familial language balances the leadership language with which the letters often begin ("apostle of Christ Jesus"). Unfortunately, the NRSV sometimes translates the Greek adelphoi as "beloved" or "friends," rather than "brothers and sisters," losing the familial character of the word. On the one hand, Paul claims apostolic authority, indicating the special responsibility he carries with regard to the churches. On the other hand, he acknowledges the common spiritual generation he shares with his readers, resulting in an unusual combination of authority and equality.